Cannabis ranks among the most commonly consumed psychoactive substances worldwide. In India, the extensive legacy of cannabis use extends back at least two thousand years. Cannabis continues to be an illegal substance in the country, even as its status changes worldwide, with numerous countries legalising its use in recent years. Research studies on cannabis usage in India have been limited as well, which is why the perception and attitude surrounding its use and benefits remains uncertain.
Today’s article sheds light on the attitudes of different sectors and individuals toward cannabis in India. We’ll highlight the historic usage of cannabis in India, the modern-day attitude toward cannabis, and the use of cannabis in research and healthcare, along with its legal status and surrounding activism.
Table of Contents
- Historical and Cultural Context of Cannabis in India
- Modern Attitudes Towards Cannabis in India
- Cannabis Research and Healthcare: Where Does India Stand?
- India’s Farmers Risk Legal Action to Grow Cannabis
- Influences of the Media and Popular Culture on Cannabis Use
- Legal Status of Cannabis in India
- Cannabis Activism in India
- Conclusion
Historical and Cultural Context of Cannabis in India
The origins of cannabis usage can be traced back to the Asian subcontinent. The native variety of Cannabis indica has been flourishing naturally throughout the Himalayan foothills and nearby plains of India for centuries.
In India, cannabis is widely recognised to have three main derivatives:
- ganja (marijuana), which refers to the dried flower buds or fruits of the female cannabis plant
- charas (hashish), the resinous secretion produced by the plant, and
- bhang, a paste made by grinding only the mature leaves.
Religious Significance: Mention in Religious and Vedic Texts
Cannabis plays an important role in the religious practices of Hindus, primarily from India and Nepal, and it has been depicted in several Hindu texts.
The first reference to bhanga (a cannabis preparation) appears in the Atharva Veda (between 2000 BC and 1400 BC), where it is characterised as a holy grass, with additional meanings such as indracana (food of the gods), vijaya (victory), and amrita (gift).
In the Sushruta Samhita (600 AD), cannabis derivatives were promoted as effective remedies beneficial for addressing specific phlegmatic conditions. In ancient India, cannabis was included in religious ceremonies and rituals, with some believing it could enhance the connection between worshippers and the divine.
Even now, the use of cannabis is viewed as fortunate during the yearly Hindu festivals of Shivaratri, Krishna Ashtami, Kali puja, and Holi, and is a crucial component of specific religious practices. These historical and mythological narratives highlight the idea of cannabis as a precious medicinal plant, a source of vitality and joy, and a pathway to spiritual harmony with the divine.
Use In Folk Medicine (Ayurveda) and Traditional Healing Practices
In Ayurveda, the ancient Indian medical system, and traditional healing methods, cannabis occupies an important role in India, with recorded therapeutic applications that trace back thousands of years, especially for addressing numerous health issues.
Ayurveda acknowledges the healing qualities of cannabis, with the earliest documented mentions potentially found in the Atharvaveda. “Bhang,” the dried leaves and seeds of Cannabis sativa, are utilised in Unani (another traditional medical system) and various folk traditions for addressing different health issues.
Historically, cannabis has been utilised as part of traditional medicinal practices for various purposes, such as alleviating pain, reducing anxiety, and serving as a possible remedy for specific ailments. Moreover, the hemp plant and its by-products, such as seeds and oil, are regarded as valuable in conventional medicine and cuisine.
Modern Attitudes Towards Cannabis in India
The consumption of cannabis has consistently increased in recent years, with over 200 million individuals globally using cannabis in 2019 alone. It continues to be the most extensively grown and traded illegal drug globally.
Even with legal restrictions, cannabis continues to be the most widely consumed, trafficked, and frequently confiscated illegal substance in India. Moreover, India is recognised for having some of the most affordable cannabis retail prices worldwide.
The Industrial and Medicinal Use of Cannabis in India
Cannabis holds potential for medical and industrial applications in India, which remain underexplored due to legal constraints and societal stigma.
There is additionally an absence of regulation and standardisation regarding medical cannabis products and prescriptions. At present, only a limited number of states, such as Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Manipur, have permitted or suggested the growing of cannabis for medicinal or research reasons, such as epilepsy, persistent pain, anxiety, sleep disorders, glaucoma, and PTSD.
However, cannabis is utilised for industrial purposes in India, notably in the manufacturing of hemp fibre and oil. Hemp is a variety of cannabis plant that contains minimal THC (the psychoactive element) and elevated amounts of CBD (the non-psychoactive element).
Hemp fibres can be utilised to produce textiles, paper, rope, canvas, and eco-friendly plastics. Hemp oil can be utilised to produce cosmetics, dietary supplements, biofuels, and paints. Moreover, cultivating hemp can positively impact the environment by decreasing soil erosion, water usage, pesticide application, and carbon output.
Nonetheless, the production of hemp in India is hindered by legal obstacles and a deficiency of awareness and infrastructure. Only a handful of states, such as Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir, have permitted or suggested the farming of hemp for industrial uses.
Demographic Differences in Usage
In India, a national survey indicated that 31 million individuals (2.8% of the overall population) reported cannabis usage in 2018, while 0.25% (2.5 million) exhibited signs of cannabis dependence. This marks a notable yet proportional rise in comparison to the forecasts from an earlier nationwide drug use survey conducted in 2004, which indicated that 8.7 million Indians (3% of the total population) used cannabis.
Similar to global trends, cannabis continues to be the third most frequently used substance in India, alongside alcohol and tobacco, thus making it the most prevalent illegal substance. There is also a notable gender difference in cannabis consumption in India, with 5% of males and just 0.6% of females indicating its use in the last year.
Attitude of College Students Towards Cannabis Use
The Indian cities of Mumbai and Delhi rank among the world’s top ten cities for cannabis use primarily due to the significant religious and cultural meanings associated with it in India.
Research involving Indian college students has also observed positive expectations alongside mixed attitudes towards usage. College students represent a particularly vulnerable population, as they navigate a tumultuous developmental phase while facing numerous academic and additional challenges.
A study published in the Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine discussed the awareness, perspectives, and expectations regarding cannabis consumption among college students in urban Bangalore. Overall scores on knowledge and attitudes suggested that students appeared quite informed about the negative consequences of cannabis use and were generally not supportive of its use. Nonetheless, the majority of the present sample did not realise that cannabis consumption could lead to driving impairment and decreased academic achievement.
Comparable results were observed in an earlier study involving college students in Mumbai, where roughly half did not realise that cannabis consumption could lead to cognitive and behavioural deficits. Additionally, in this study, a notable percentage of students expressed that cannabis consumption was safe for leisure activities and that using cannabis was integral to college life, aiding in relaxation, enhancing creativity, and fostering romantic feelings.
Comparable results were observed in international studies where recreational reasons impacted usage, and favourable views were reported among cannabis consumers, such as alleviation from anxiety and stress.
Cannabis Research and Healthcare: Where Does India Stand?
With increasing cannabis legalisation and decriminalisation worldwide, India has joined the movement as well. However, the research on multiple facets of cannabis use in India appears inadequate and has significant gaps in terms of providing key information for formulating policies on cannabis use.
Beyond the infrequent government-commissioned epidemiological and household studies, scientific exploration of cannabis use in India has been quite limited, as reflected in the scientific writings on cannabis use that originate from India. Despite being a nation that pioneered one of the earliest documented uses of cannabis for medicinal purposes and conducted initial systematic research on cannabis-related psychosis, the input from the Indian scientific community to contemporary cannabis literature is disappointingly inadequate.
Moreover, the majority of Indian research studies on cannabis use are prevalence studies that evaluate the frequency of cannabis consumption in conjunction with various substances or health behaviours. In the majority of Indian studies reviewed, the research designs were basic; sample sizes were small and based on convenience, and statistical analyses were restricted to just descriptive methods.
In comparison, a substantial body of research has emerged in the West on the nature of cannabis, its patterns of use, psychological and physiological correlates of cannabis use disorders, and various treatment methods and their outcomes. However, these areas have been largely unexplored among the Indian population. Moreover, cannabis use has multiple representations at historical, sociocultural, and political levels in India, but high-quality and credible scientific research on cannabis use has been lacking.
India’s Farmers Risk Legal Action to Grow Cannabis
In several states, including Uttarakhand, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir, which became a federal territory in 2019, cannabis cultivation is permitted solely for medicinal purposes. Nonetheless, Odisha is not included among them. However, growing cannabis is an extremely profitable venture for farmers in Odisha, providing them with instant wealth.
Cannabis cultivators typically select secluded areas in the mountains for their farms to shield themselves from law enforcement actions. The season for planting begins at the close of July. Usually, it requires five months for the flowers to develop, after which they are harvested, sun-dried, packaged, and sold to traders.
Cannabis farming is presently ongoing in six districts of Odisha state: Koraput, Malkangiri, Rayagada, Gajapati, Boudh, and Kandhamal, each characterised by mountainous and hilly landscapes. High-ranking state police officials are trying their best to combat the illicit trade and cultivation of the crop.
Influences of the Media and Popular Culture on Cannabis Use
A major concern with regards to cannabis attitudes and usage is the cannabis-related information accessible to the youth through media or online sources. For example, in the research with college students in Bangalore, 42% had seen cannabis-related content in films or on television, and over one-third had searched online for details about cannabis products.
When the college students were asked why there should not be limitations on cannabis use, especially given that alcohol and tobacco are legally accessible to the public despite their known health risks, they stated that in India, cannabis is ingrained in the culture, and if it becomes more socially acceptable, they can obtain it and gain advantages without fear of legal repercussions. Furthermore, cannabis has frequently been shown in Indian films. Traditionally, Hindi movies have shown cannabis use in a negative light, associating the drug with a privileged hippie lifestyle or portraying it as a hallucinogenic substance utilised by lawbreakers. The use of bhang has frequently been highlighted in famous film songs like Jai Jai Shiv Shankar, Khaike Paan Banaraswala, and the well-known track Manali Trance.
However, unfavourable representations of cannabis started to shift around the 2000s. Movies like Silsalay (1981) Shaitan (2011), Luv Shuv Tey Chicken Khurana (2012), and Kapoor & Sons (2016) showcased urban middle-class characters utilising cannabis for relaxation. Go Goa Gone (2013) was referred to as the first stoner comedy in the Hindi language. Famous Indian actor Akshay Kumar smoked nonchalantly in the film Good Newwz (2019).
However, certain films like Gully Boy (2019) address the illegal cannabis trade in Mumbai. A 2023 study examined Bollywood films featuring illegal drug use that were released over the past twenty years, focusing on their content. Online film databases, reference books, and blogs were utilised along with Google searches to create a list of films depicting illegal drug use by at least one character. Every film was shown two times to examine character details and patterns of drug use.
A total of 22 films featuring 25 characters were analysed. Most characters were young males, students, and wealthy. Intoxication was the most prevalent condition, while social hardships were the most frequently illustrated complications. Pursuit of treatment was minimal, and the most frequent result was death.
This shows that film portrayals of drug use can foster certain misunderstandings among audiences. It can lead to negative behaviours and attitudes while simultaneously creating wrongful impressions about the medicinal advantages of cannabis. Hence, it is necessary to align cinema with scientific knowledge.
Legal Status of Cannabis in India
In India, cannabis is categorised as a “narcotic drug” according to Section 2 (xiv) of the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (NDPSA), 1985. In India, the recreational use of cannabis and its different forms, including ganja, charas, hashish, and any combination of these preparations, is against the law.
Furthermore, Section 8 (c) of NDPSA additionally forbids the cultivation, production, possession, use, consumption, purchase, sale, transport, warehousing, importation, and exportation of ganja for all reasons except medical and scientific purposes. However, bhang is not included in this definition according to NDPSA.
The increase in cannabis consumption resulted in the creation of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission Report in 1894, which is considered one of the earliest systematic examinations of cannabis usage. It determined that only excessive cannabis use resulted in significant physical, mental, and moral consequences, rather than occasional use.
The subsequent decades experienced an unrestrained rise in cannabis farming and consumption, reaching its height in the 1960s in India and Nepal. Nonetheless, India enacted the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act in 1985, which effectively prohibited the cultivation, production, and use of cannabis along with 70 additional narcotic and psychotropic substances. This occurred after cannabis use was more heavily regulated and banned in the US and European nations, with India also complying as a signatory to the UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (1961).
Political Support for Cannabis Legalisation
In accordance with the worldwide movement to decriminalise cannabis, support for legalising cannabis in India for both medical and recreational use has been steadily increasing.
In 2016, the Indian Parliament proposed legislation for the medicinal and commercial use of cannabis. In 2019, the Indian states of Uttarakhand and Madhya Pradesh allowed the growing of cannabis for medical and industrial uses.
Moreover, efforts have been made to medicalise cannabis, as the Central Government tasked a council under the Ministry of Ayurveda, Yoga, Naturopathy, Unani, Sidha, and Homoeopathy (AYUSH) with carrying out scientific studies on cannabis’s effectiveness for different medical conditions.
In the study previously mentioned involving students of urban Bangalore, one-fourth of the sample endorsed the legalisation of cannabis, asserting that it aids in stress relief. Comparable results were discovered in another qualitative study also involving college students in urban Bangalore, where the students stated that cannabis and tobacco are interconnected, that there exists “research evidence” regarding the medicinal advantages of cannabis, and that its legalisation is warranted.
Overall, public sentiment regarding the legalisation of cannabis is becoming more positive, likely due to an expanding body of global literature that suggests potential therapeutic advantages of cannabis without subjecting individuals to health hazards. Certain experts have also proposed that legalising cannabis in India may assist in preventing youth from using unregulated products. However, a rise in cannabis consumption among youths after legalisation may incur an increase in related high-risk activities.
To summarise, the use of cannabis in India is deeply connected to the sociocultural aspects of people’s lives. Future decisions regarding the legalisation or decriminalisation of cannabis use must be grounded in scientific evidence that reflects actual conditions. At this crucial point in India’s cannabis history, it is essential to assess the research initiatives undertaken to inform cannabis use policies and offer guidance for future studies.
Cannabis Activism in India
Some private companies and NGOs are engaged in developing and promoting medical cannabis products in India, including the Great Legalisation Movement and the Indian Cannabis Research Institute (CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute).
CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute
CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow is the pioneering R&D organisation that has undertaken the challenge of developing a cannabis variety with <0.3% THC and high fibre for industrial applications on one side, and a high THC and CBD variety for medicinal applications on the other.
More importantly, CSIR-NBRI made significant efforts to urge the governments of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh to create a policy for the cultivation of the cannabis plant. The Uttarakhand Government has announced a notice for the commercial farming of strains with less than 0.3% THC, whereas the U.P. Government has established a policy to grant licenses solely for research and development purposes.
Furthermore, CSIR-NBRI has commenced initial research efforts through with Bombay Hemp Company Pvt. Ltd. (BOHECO). CSIR-NBRI is also actively participating in launching R&D initiatives in partnership with the Manipur Government to enhance the cultivation of cannabis in Manipur for rational and socio-economic development.
Great Legalisation Movement India Trust
In 2015, the Bombay High Court rejected a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) that challenged the scientific and logical basis for classifying cannabis as a Schedule I substance under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 (NDPS). The PIL also requested clarification on how cannabis use negatively impacts the human body and sought justification for its prohibition.
Likewise, in 2017, the Great Legalisation Movement India Trust submitted a PIL to the Delhi High Court, questioning if the criminalisation of cannabis cultivation, possession, and use infringed upon the right to life guaranteed by Article 21 of the Constitution, as current laws did not take its medicinal properties into account. This PIL also referred to promoting awareness regarding the medical, industrial, ecological, economic, and various other advantages associated with cannabis.
Conclusion
Cannabis has a complex history in India, extending over thousands of years, and is linked to various meanings, such as a medicine, a sacred plant, a cash crop, and a substance for recreation or misuse. Cannabis was banned only in the latest chapters of its Indian history, while its usage and popularity surged significantly; now, it is close to being legalised once more.
Despite cannabis being recognised for its potential for addiction and specific adverse effects, there remains much we are unaware of, and scientific investigation into it has only accelerated in the last few decades. Given a country with such a distinctive history related to cannabis, the current state of scientific research on cannabis in India is rather fundamental. There is a critical demand for organised and high-calibre research on cannabis consumption, especially to examine how the sociocultural depictions of cannabis affect the swiftly increasing rates of cannabis use among Indians.
Moreover, as attitudes shift and restrictions on cannabis use relax, there is a significant increase in the number of new users, especially among college students. This highlights an urgent requirement for research into the motivations and attitudes towards cannabis consumption and how these factors can affect patterns of usage, along with the immediate and lasting effects of consumption. This is the shared duty of researchers, policymakers, and politicians, and cannabis-based organisations.
Lastly, additional research with more robust designs (including both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies) is needed for examining cannabis use, as this insight will be essential for addressing the rising substance crisis, educating the public and creating public health strategies, and developing effective policy frameworks.
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